Includes bibliographical references and index.

Preface ix



Part I: Introduction 1

1 A Functional Language Approach 3

Role of Pragmatics in Intervention 8

Dimensions of Communication Context Summary 10

Role of Generalization in Intervention 10

Variables that Affect Generalization Summary 17

Evidence-Based Practice 17

Conclusion 19

2 Language Impairments 21

Diagnostic Categories 22

Information Processing 24

Mental Retardation or Intellectual Diability 26

Language Learning Disability 34

Specific Language Impairment 41

Pervasive Developmental Disorder/Autism-Spectrum Disorder 48

Brain Injury 55

Maltreatment: Neglect or Abuse 57

Other Language Impairments 61

Conclusion 63

Implications 64



Part II: Communication Assessment 67



3 Assessment of Preschool and School-Age Children with Language Impairment 69

Psychometric Versus Descriptive Procedures 7

Psychometric Assessment Protocols 73
Test Differences 74

Content 74

Misuse of Normative Testing 75

Variables in Test Selection 79

Summary 80
Descriptive Approaches 80
Reliability and Validity 81

Summary 83
An Integrated Functional Assessment Strategy 83
Questionnaire, Interview, and Referral 84

Observation 85

Formal Testing 87

Sampling 97
Assessment for Information-Processing Deficits 98

Conclusion 98
4 Assessment of Preschool and School-Age Children with Language Difference 99
State of Service Delivery 101
Lack of Preparation and Experience 101

Unfamiliarity with Language and Culture 101

Lack of Appropriate Assessment Tools 106
Overcoming Bias in an Assessment 107
Use of Interpreters 108

Alternative Assessment 110
An Integrated Model for Assessment 111
Children with LEP 112

Children with Different Dialects 118

Summary 120
Conclusion 120
5 Language Sampling 121
Planning and Collecting a Representative Sample 122
Representativeness 122

A Variety of Language Contexts 123

Evocative Conversational Techniques 128

Language Sampling of Children with CLD Backgrounds 137

Recording the Sample 138

Transcribing the Sample 140

Collecting Samples of Written Language 143

Conclusion 143
6 Analysis Across Utterances and Partners and by Communication Event 145
Across Utterances and Partners 147
Stylistic Variations 147

Referential Communication 148

Cohesive Devices 151
Communication Event 153
Social Versus Nonsocial 154

Conversational Initiation 155

Topic Initiation 156

Conversation and Topic Maintenance 158

Duration of Topic 161

Topic Analysis Format 162

Turn Taking 166

Conversation and Topic Termination 169

Conversational Breakdown 170
Conversational Partner 173

Conclusion 175
7 Analyzing a Language Sample at the Utterance Level 176
Language Use 177
Disruptions 178

Intentions 179
Content 184

Lexical Items 185

Word Relationships 187

Figurative Language 190

Word Finding 191
Form 192

Quantitative Measures 192

Syntactic and Morphological Analysis 197
Conclusion 215

8 Narrative Analysis 216
Scripts and Narrative Frames 218

Collecting Narratives 218

Narrative Analysis 220
Narrative Levels 221

High-Point Analysis 222

Story Grammars 224

Expressive Elaboration 227

Quantitative Measures 229

Cohesive Devices 230

Reliability and Validity 232
Children with CLD Backgrounds 233

Narrative Collection and Analysis 235

Conclusion 236


Part 3 Intervention 239


9 A Functional Intervention Model 241
Principles 243
The Language Facilitator as Reinforcer 243

Close Approximation of Natural Learning 244

Following Developmental Guidelines 244

Following the Child's Lead 246

Active Involvement of the Child 247

Heavy Influence of Context on Language 247

Familiar Events Providing Scripts 247

Designing a Generalization Plan First 248
Generalization Variables 248
Training Targets 248

Training Items 250

Method of Training 252

Language Facilitators 255

Training Cues 262

Contingencies 263

Location 264

Conclusion 265
10 Manipulating Context 266
Nonlinguistic Contexts 267
Linguistic Contexts 269
Modeling 270

Direct Linguistic Cues 272

Indirect Linguistic Cues 273

Contingencies 274
Top-Down Teaching 279
Conclusion 281
11 Specific Intervention Techniques 283
Pragmatics 283
Intentions 284

Conversational Abilities 288

Narration 295
Semantics 299

Inadequate Vocabulary 300

Semantic Categories and Relational Words 303

Word Retrieval and Categorization 311

Comprehension 315
Syntax and Morphology 322
Morphology 323

Verb Tensing 323

Pronouns 327

Plurals 328

Articles 328

Prepositions 329

Word Order and Sentence Types 330

Summary 331
Children with CLD Backgrounds 333

Use of Microcomputers 336

Conclusion 338
12 Classroom Functional Intervention 339
Background and Rationale: Recent Educational Changes 340
Inclusion 341

Collaborative Teaching 342

Summary 343
Role of the Speech-Language Pathologist 344
Relating to Others 344

Language Intervention and Language Arts 345
Elements of a Classroom Model 346
Identification of Children at Risk 346

Curriculum-Based Intervention 353

Linguistic Awareness Intervention Within the Classroom 358

Language Facilitation 365
Instituting a Classroom Model 370

Conclusion 374
13 Literacy Impairments: Language in a Visual Mode 375
Reading 377

Reading Problems 377

Children with CLD Backgrounds 379

Assessment of Reading 380

Intervention for Reading Impairment 385
Writing 397

Writing Problems 397

Assessment of Writing 399

Intervention for Writing Impairment 403
Conclusion 408



Appendices
A Considerations for CLD Children 409
B Language Analysis Methods 419
C Selected English Morphological Prefixes and Suffixes 443
D Indirect Elicitation Techniques 445

E Intervention Activities and Language Targets 449

F Use of Children's Literature in Preschool Classrooms 453


Glossary 467

References 471

Author Index 535

Subject Index 549